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Preface and Acknowledgements x

Introduction: A Balkan Laboratory of Citizenship 1

A century of dis/integrations 1
Citizenship and citizenship regime 4
In Yugoslavia, and after: Citizenship as research field, citizenship as battlefield 11
Citizenship as a political history of Yugoslavia and the post-Yugoslav states 17

Part 1 From National Integration to the First Disintegration 23

1 Brothers United: The Making of Yugoslavs 25
Brothers as aliens: From Yugoslavism to Yugoslavia 25
Brothers as citizens: The belated birth of Yugoslav citizenship 30
Precarious birth, fragile existence and the brutal death of the first Yugoslavia 34

2 Revolutionary Brothers: The Communist Formula for Yugoslavia 37
Yugoslav communists: Solving the national question 38
Wartime: Enemies or brothers? 47
From brothers in arms to federated citizens 50

Part 2 From Socialist Re-Integration to the Second Disintegration 53

3 Brothers Re-United! Federal Citizenship in Socialist Yugoslavia 55
Centralist federalism, 1945–1967 55
Bifurcated citizenship 62
Self-management, decentralization and citizenship 66

4 Brothers as Partners: Centrifugal Federalism, Confederal Citizenship and Complicated Partnership 71
Centrifugal federalism, 1967–1974 71
From federal to confederal citizenship 79
Broken partnership: From confederal citizenship towards crisis 82

5 The Bridges Over the Miljacka: The Long Farewell to Yugoslav Citizenship 89
Yugoslavism: Fading of an idea 90
Yugoslavia: Only a matter of interests? 93
Code red: Turning citizens into enemies 97

Part 3 From Nationalist Disintegration to War 101

6 Partners into Competitors: Divisive Democracy and Conflicting Conceptions of Citizenship 103
Democracy and nationalism 104
Citizens as voters: Democratize and divide 110
A secret handshake between nationalism and electoral democracy 116

7 Where is My State? Citizenship as a Factor in Yugoslavia’s Disintegration 119
So, why did it happen? 119
Relevant factors of Yugoslavia’s disintegration 121
The citizenship factor 128

8 Enemies: Citizenship as a Trigger of Violence 133
The dark side of 1989: Violence in post-socialist Europe 133
Triggers of violence: Citizenship, borders and
territories, and the role of the federal military 138
Conclusion: The price of war 146

Part 4 From Ethnic Engineering to European Re-Integration? 149

9 From Equal Citizens to Unequal Groups: The Post-Yugoslav Citizenship Regimes 151
The citizenship conundrum in post-socialist Europe 152
Ethnic engineering after Yugoslavia: The included, the invited, the excluded and the self-excluded 156
Enemies into neighbours: Unconsolidated and overlapping citizenship regimes 165
Concluding remarks: From ethnic engineering to ethnic democracies 168

10 Partners Again? The European Union and the Post-Yugoslav Citizens 173
The EU’s direct and limited influences 174
Five ways to (mis)manage the post-Yugoslav citizenship regimes 176
Partners, or just neighbours? 183

Epilogue: The Citizenship Argument – Why Are We in This Together? 187

Notes 194
Bibliography 203
Index 215